Micropropagation clonalpropogation,

Micropropagation


  • Micropropagation is the practice of rapidly multiplying stock plant material to produce a large number of progeny plants, using modern plant tissue culture methods. 
  • Micropropagation is used to multiply plants such as those that have been genetically modified or bred through conventional plant breeding methods. 
  • In-vitro it is a complicated process requiring many steps or stages. 
  • Murashige (1978) proposed distinct stages that can be adopted from overall production technology of clones under in-vitro culture conditions. 
Sterlization of Explant
This process includes 3 steps:
1. Washing under running water using liquid detergent and sodium hypochloride.
2. Two rinsing and washing with distilled water.
3. Explant sterilization with aqueous mercuric chloride in the laminar air flow bench.

Inoculation of Explant
Inoculation is carried out in the laminar air flow in the nutrient medium. Keeping all the sterile culture conditions the explant is inoculated on the medium, using a pair of sterile forceps.

  • last for 3 months to 2 years and requires at least 4 passages of the subculture usually explant carrying a performed vegetative bud are suitable for enhanced axillary branching. 
  • If stock plants are tested virus free than the most suitable explants are nodal cuttings. 
  • The disadvantages of using small size explant are that they have a low survival rate and show slow initial growth.

Multiplication of Shoots or Somatic Embryo formation
Plant tissue culture technique also leads to the development of shoots and somatic embryos in vitro. The process includes various stages which are described below:

Stage 1

  • This stage involves the maximum proliferation of regenerated shoot using a defined culture medium. Various approaches for micropropagation include–
  1. Multiplication growth and proliferation of meristems excised from apical and axillary shoot of the parent plant.
  2. Induction and multiplication of adventitious meristems through process of organogenesis or somatic embryogenesis on direct explants.
  3. Multiplication of calli derived from organ tissue, cell etc. and the subsequent expression of either organogenesis or somatic embryogenesis in serial subcultures.
     Fig.  Schematic representation of Somatic Embryogenesis in carrot

Germination of Somatic Embryo and Rooting of Regenerated Shoot-

Stage 2

Shoots proliferated from stage 1 is transferred to a rooting (storage) medium. Sometimes shoots are directly established in soil as microculturing to developed roots. The shoots are generally rooted in vitro. When the shoots or plantlet are prepared for soil it may be necessary to evaluate several factors such as:
(i) Dividing the shoots and rooting them individually.
(ii) Hardening the shoots to increase their resistance to moisture stress and disease.
(iii) Rendering plants capable of autotrophic development in contrast to heterotrophic state induced by culture.
(iv) Fulfilling requirements of breaking dormancy.

Stage 2 - Requires 1-6 weeks Transfer of pellets to sterilized soil or green house.

Stage 3- 
Steps taken to ensure successful transfer of the plantlets of stage 2 from the aseptic environment of the laboratory to the environment of the green house comprises 

stage 4. 
This is known as acclimatization. It takes 4-16 weeks for the finished product (plant size in the range of 3-6 inches) to be ready for sale.

Proliferation of Shoots in the multiplication medium
in-vitro multiplication of shoot involves 3 main approaches.

(a) Multiplication of axillary and apical shoots

Axillary and apical shoots contain quiescent or active meristem depending upon the physiological state on the plant. The axillary buds are treated with hormones to break dormancy and produce shoot branches. The shoot are then reported and rooted to produce plants division. Generally the technique of proliferation by axillary shoots is applicable to any plant that produces regular axillary shoots are respond to cytokinins such as BAP and Zeatin. Apical shoots (1-5 mm) are normally cultured on media containing mixture of auxin and cytokinin. The presence of cytokinin in the media inhibits root
development, cultured material is transferred in stage 3 to a rooting medium which contain either no or reduce levels of cytokinin.

(b) Multiplication by adventitious shoots:

Adventitious shoots are stem and leaf structures that arise naturally on plant tissues located inside other than at normal leaf axil region. These structures include stems, bulbs, corns, tubers and rhizomes. Almost every one of these organs can be used as culturing in conventional propagation e.g. (leaves of Begonia) in culture similar type of shoot formation can be induced by using appropriate condition of growth regulators in media I 25°C some cultures may require initial low temperature for morphogenic resistance. Genotype screening and selection of genotypes among segregating populations could be fruitful approaches in the improvement of micropropagation capabilities of plant which are recalcitrant in tissue culture.

Acclimatization of Plant transferred to Soil

Micropropagation on a large scale can be successful only when plants after transfer form culture to soil show high survival rates and the cost involved in the process is low. Plants are transferred to the soil usually after the in-vitro rooting stage it is essential that the dark parts of tissue culture plants or shoots be washed thoroughly before their transfer to the potting mixture. Transplanted plantlets or shoots are immediately irrigated with an inorganic nutrient solution and maintained under high humidity for the initial 10-15 days. This is required between plantlets, dividing culture all adopted to almost 90-100% humidity attempts have also been made to harden the shoot system by inducing
anatropism and development of surface wax on in-vitro leaves. During large scale micropropagation of some plants certain (bacterial) contamination persists even after critical surface sterilization of explants. Addition of antibiotics or fungicides to the culture medium may control the contamination.

Browning of the Medium

Explants from the adult tissue of some woody species often produce excessive amount of phenolic substances which turn the medium dark brown. Such a medium is toxic to issues and inhibits their growth. Browning may be prevented by incorporating ascorbic acid or citric acid in culture media or by repeated subculturing.

Advantages of Micropropagation product development

  1. Rapid multiplication: Micropropagation provides a method for rapid increase in the both asexually propagated and sexually propagated materials many flowers and vegetable used.
  2. Product uniformity: The resulting product can have a high degree of phenotypic uniformity hence the crops can be artificially manipulated in the laboratory to yield a large plant population at the same growth.
  3. High volume: Large population can be produced in relative by smaller growing space and in a reduced time frame.
  4. Elite selection: It is possible to effectively capitalize on the selections of one desirable plant and then micropropagate it into large number and release as superior selection.
  5.  Germplasm stage: Storage methods for effective preservation of valuable selection can be accomplished by combing micropropagation with cold storage and even cryopreservation in liquid N2.
  6. Diseased induced plants: Technique to index or eliminate specific diseases particrularly viruses can readily be incorporated into micropropagation procedure.
  7. Non-Specific production: Micropropagation gives propagation uses such as minitubers or minicorms for plants multiplication throughout the year irrespective of the season.
  8. Cloning of dioecious species: Multiplicaiton by cloning of dioecious species is extremely important when the seed progeny yield 50% males and 50% females and plants of one of series are desired commercialized
  9. 30°C is optimum temperature for cellulose formation.
  10. Shoot tip culture and virus free plant

Selection of explant

Surface sterilization and washing

Establishment on growth medium

Transfer to proliferation medium

Shoot and rooting formation

Transfer of shoots and plantlets to sterilized soil

Major stage of micropropagation

Morel and Martin, 1952, developed the technique of meristem culture for in vivo
virus eradicate of Dahlia.
We use the axillary bud or meristem tissue:
 Because the high concentration of auxin, virus is not able to survive.
 The cell division is too fast so virus is not able to replicate in this region.

Shoot tip or meristem culture

Cultivaiton of axillary or apical shoot meristem via meristem culture

Explant: Shoot apical meristem lies in the shoot tip beyond the youngest leaf and
first leaf primodium.
  • It measure upto about 100 m in diameter and 250 m in length.
  • Thus a shoot tip of 100-500 m in m contains 1-3 leaf primodia in addition to the apical meristem.
  • 1 mm – shoot tip used for virus elimination 1 cm for clonal propagation.
  • Shoot tip may be cut into five pieces to obtain more than one plantlet from each shoot tip.
  • Meristem of shoot tip is cut or isolated from stem by applying a U shaped cut with a sterilized knife.

Biofilm ( जैव झिल्ली )

Biofilm ( जैव झिल्ली )

·         सूक्ष्म जीवो के समुदाय से बनी परत नुमा संरचना जो एक दुसरे अथवा किसी आधार से जुडी होती है जैव झिल्ली कहलाती है
जैसे – जल में डूबी चट्टानों पर बनी हुई slimy परत, दांतों पर जमी चिकनी परत, अथवा पानी व सीवर के पाइपो में जमी हुई slimy layer बायोफिल्म कहलाती है,

Stage of Biofilm Development
  • सरल बायोफिल्म सुक्ष्मजीवों की एकल परत का रूप में होती है, जो अन्य सूक्ष्म जीवो के एकत्र होने पर जटिल हो जाती है यह सुक्षम्जीव glycoprotien अथवा polysecheride के स्त्रावण के कारण आधार से सलग्न हो जाती है , अन्य सूक्षम जीव भी इस परत से आकर जुड़ जाते है |
  • सूक्ष्मजीवों द्वारा स्त्रावित EPS (extra cellular polysecheride ) में ग्लूकोज, fructose, manose galectose आदि शर्कराए उपस्थित होती है,
  • इस EPS में कार्बनिक पदार्थ, मृत कोशिकाएं लवण आदि पदार्थ भी फंस जाते है जिससे यह जटिल हो जाती 
  • इस जटिल बायोफिल्म में कोशिकाओं के समूह के बीच में छिद्र तथा वाहिकाएं उपस्थित होती है जिनके मध्य से जल के प्रवाह के साथ साथ पोषक पदार्थों का भी संवहन होता है
  • बायोफिल्म की भीतरी परतों में उपस्थित microbs कभी कभी कार्य करना वंद कर देते है किन्तु वे जीवित रहते है, जबकि इसके बाहर की और उपस्थित कोशिकाएं कार्यशील होती है जो multipication करती रहती है, कभी कभी कुछ microbs अलग होकर नई बायोफिल्म का निर्माण करती है
  • इन जटिल बायोफिल्म में cynobacteria के तंतु भी भी शामिल हो जाते है जिससे microbs के जाल बन जाते है, इन जालों में प्रकाश की भेदन क्षमता बहुत कम (1mm) होती है अता इसमें सबसे ऊपर प्रकाश शंश्लेशी क्षेत्र होता है तथा उसके नीचे अवायवीय क्षेत्र होता है, जहाँ facultative chemoheterothrophs उपस्थित होते है, तथा सबसे नीचे SO4 अपचयन करी जीवाणु पायें जाते है |



Importance  of Biofilm

इनके लाभदयक और हानिकारक दोनों प्रकार के प्रभाव दिखाई देते है जैसे –

लाभदयक-
  • सीवरेज के जल के परिशोधन मे
  • जेव रियक्टर में संवर्धित करने पर यह कार्बनिक पदर्थों का अपघटन कर मीथेन गेस बनाते है जिसका उपयोग इंधन में किया जाता है
  • पादपों की मूलों के साथ जुड़ कर पोषक तत्वों के अवशोषण में मदद करते है
  • जीवों की सतह पर उपस्थित बायोफिल्म रोगकारी microbs से रक्षा करने में मदद करती है


    हानिकारक
  • यह टेंक पाइप बर्तनों आदि में संक्षरण करती है
  • मनुष्य के दांतों के क्षरण के लिए उत्तरदाई होती है
  • यह Cystic fibrosis, Valv संक्रमण, कर्ण संक्रमण, मूत्र मार्ग संक्रमण आदि का कारण बनती है 

Quarum sensing (कोरम सेंसिंग )

Quarum sensing (कोरम सेंसिंग )
  •  यह जीवाणुओं द्वारा उपयोग की जाने वाली एसी व्यवस्था है जिसमे जीवाणु signal molecule का उपयोग कर आपस में संवाद करते है, कोरम सेंसिंग कहलाता है |
  • जीवाणु कोरम सेंसिंग का उपयोग Biofilm निर्माण , उग्रता या रोगजनकता तथा एंटीबायोटिक resistence के निर्धारण में करते है
  • यह एक प्रजाति के सदस्यों के बीच अथवा विभिन्न प्रजातियों के सदस्यों के बीच भी हो सकती है
  •  जीवाणुओं में विभिन्न रसायनिक अणुओं  का उपयोग सरल संकेतों के रूप में या विसरण दर के निर्धारण अथवा अपनी population के आकर व भोजन की उपलब्धता को ज्ञात करने में करते है
  • एक जीवाणु species एक से ज्यादा quorum sensing तंत्रों का तथा इसके अनुसार एक से ज्यादा प्रकार के signal molecule का उपयोग कर सकते है.
  •  सामान्यतया Gram –Ve  bacteria Acyl HSL (Acyl homoserine Lactones ) का उपयोग signal molecule के रूप में करते है , यह samll molecule होता है Gram +Ve bacteria  4 -14 carbon acyl chain से बने oligopeptide का उपयोग signal molecule के रूप में करते है , gram +ve व gram-ve bacteria द्वारा Pheromones का उपयोग भी signal molecule के रूप में किया जाता है
  •  Quorum sensing का उपयोग करने वाले जीवाणु लगातार signal molecule का उत्पादन एवं secretion करते रहते है, यह molecule  auto – inducer कहलाते है,जिवाणुओ में इनको पहचानने के लिए receptor उपस्थित होते है,  यह signal molecule bacteria में डीएनए के specific site पर बंध जाते है और transcription start कर देते है और विशिस्ठ प्रकार के उत्पाद का निर्माण करते है जो अन्य जीवाणु के लिए inducer का कार्य करता है,
  • Vibrio Fischeri नामक जीवाणु में bio – luminescence ( जेव प्रतिदीप्ति ) पाई जाती है यह luciferase एंजाइम के कारण होती है जिससे जीवाणु चमकता हुआ दिखाई देता है, यह जीवाणु में तब होती जब बैक्टीरियल population एक निश्चित आकर ग्रहण कर लेती है, अलग अलग और कम संख्या में यह प्रक्रिया संपन्न नहीं होती है

Uses of Quorum Sencing जीवाणु इसका उपयोग बायोफिल्म के निर्माण , एंटीबायोटिक के प्रति प्रतिरोध population के आकर आदि के लिए करते है, इनके बारे में जानकारी होने के पश्चात इसका उपयोग निम्न क्षेत्रों में किया जा सकता है
·          जिवाणुओ की वृद्धि को रोकने में
·         एंटीबायोटिक्स का उपयोग किये बगेर ही रोगों के नियंत्रण में
·         इनके sensing molecule का उपयोग केंसर आदि रोगों के इलाज में किया जा सकता है
·         Pseudomonas aeruginosa में कोरम सेंसिंग को रोकने के लिए लहसन व जिनसेंग का उपयोग किया जा सकता है, जिससे इसकी वर्द्धि को नियंत्रित किया जा सकता है ,


Organogenesis

Organogenesis

Fundamental Aspects, Techniques and Utility of
Organogenesis
Callus Cultures
If organized tissue diverted into an unorganized proliferation mass of cells they form callus tissue. Some times deep, large wounds in branches and crumps of the intact plants results in formation of soft mass of unorganized parenchymatous tissue which are rapidly form on or below the injured surface of the organ concern.
Such callus tissue is known as wound callus and is formed by division of cambial tissues. Secondly sometimes unorganized, compact, white, light outgrowth or callus like masses on stem, leaf, root and formed by stimulus of cell division in fully differentiated cell due to some diseases.
Definition: Callus tissue means an unorganized, proliferative mass of cells produced from isolated plant cell, tissues organs. When grown aseptically or artificial nutrient media under cultured conditions.

Principle- For successful initiation of callus culture 3 important criteria should be accomplished.
1. Aseptic preparation of plant material: First washed with liquid detergent with generally 5% made by Teepol) than surface sterilize by 0.1% made by volume MgCl2, 0.8% to 1.6% sodium hypochloride.
2. Selection of suitable media supplement with appropriate ratio of auxins and cytokinin.
3. Incubation of culture under controlled physical condition of light,
temperature and humidity.
Temperature 25±2°C
Light duration – Totally dark for 16 hrs.
Light intensity – Cool white light 2000 to 3000 lux approximately.
Humidity – 60%
Once the growth of the callus tissue is well established, portions of callus tissue can be removed and transferred directly on to fresh media.

Callus Formation
Formation of callus is outcome of cell division of cells of explants. During formation of callus tissue explants losses its original characteristics. 
For initiation of callus culture, tissue from young seedlings and juvenile part of a mature plant are generally taken. As the explant absorbs exogenously supplied hormones along with other nutrients, it makes at continuous nutrient gradient among the different cell of the explants on the basis of their location. 
As a result, cell divide asynchronously depended upon the availability of nutrients and hormones. Both auxins and cytokinins required for indefinite growth and cell division in callus culture. Sometimes only 2,4-D is sufficient as auxins promote growth and cytokinins promote cell division. After formation of visible unorganized mass of cells at cut end, gradually the old tissue is involved to form callus.
Caullogenesis– formation of shoots induction or proliferation
Rhizogenesis – Formation of Root..

Organogenesis – The development of adventitious organ or primodia from undifferentiated cell mass in tissue culture by the process of differentiation. When periphery cell start dividing it forms abnormal growth and it will degenerates after some time.
Some anomolous abnormal structure which are structurally similar to the organ between the dermal vascular and ground tissue present in plant tissue. But they differ from the true organ because they are obtained directly from peripheral cells of the callus and not from the organized meristemoid (patches of actively dividing cells of the callus).




Characteristics of Organogenesis
Unlimited growth of callus should be formed for proper differentiation.
Initiation of shoot buds prior to rooting between rooting potential persist for a longer time and the shooting potential is for smaller time therefore rooting is done prior than shooting it is very difficult to initiate shooting.
Once Rhizogenesis starts callus obtained is yellow in colour and it turns green when caulogenesis starts.
Organogenetic capacity is a capacity of callus to differentiate into different organ.
The use of the growth regulators – when we use it the cell may undergo some mutation (aneuploidy, polyploidy if we subculture the callus, the callus formed may undergo some change in genetic makeup and hence they may loose their organogenetic potential.

Habituated callus – It shows the undifferentiated growth this habituated callus gives organogenetic potential.

Factors Affecting Organogenesis
Following factors affects process of organogenesis -
1. Size of explants.
2. Age of the explants. - A younger leaf produces roots and older leaves produce shoots after organogenesis.
3. Seasonal explants - Explants excised during summer and winter do not produce shoot at all.
4. Oxygen gradient
Low – caulogenesis
High – Rhizogenesis
5. Colour spectrum or quality or intensity of light. -Blue colour of spectrum Red colour promotes the rooting, light duration is 16 hrs and light intensity is 2000-3000 lux and temperature is 25°C.
6. Ploidy level. - Large number of plant species including economically important medicinal plants, horticultural important plant etc.have been successfully regenerated from the callus.
Regeneration of whole plants from explant is of special interest in mutagenic studies.
Regeneration of whole plants from somatically mutant cell types new strains of mutant plant are obtained through organogenesis.
New source of genetic variability is also available in plant regenerated for cell culture. This somaclonal variation is a useful source of variability.
A chromosomal variation is associated with phenotypic variation including agriculture by use of characters such as disease resistance.

Morphology of Callus
Callus tissue proliferates as an amorphous mass of cell having no regular shape.
All calluses derived from different plants look alike externally but can be distinguish on basis of internal structure.

Internal Structure of Callus
Cellular composition of callus tissue is extremely heterogenous ranging from cell with dense cytoplasm, plant cells with vacuolated cytoplasm, shape of cells very strong spherical to elongated plant elongated cells are usually non dividing having large central vacuole while small cells are actually dividing cells which have reduced vacuole size and dense cytoplasm, formation of xylem and phloem with in callus which is known as cytodifferentiation.
Soft callus is friable in nature and is made of heterogeneous mass of cells having minimal content. Hard callus consist of giant cell which closely packed that is compact in nature.

Colouration
Generally creamish yellow in colour.Sometimes callus tissue may be pigmented; pigmentation may be uniform or patchy – some time Callus Tissue grows in dark and turn green after transferring in light condition due to development of chloroplast.
Yellow - Carotinoids
Purple - Xanthocyanin
Brown - Phenolic

Habituation
Sometimes, after repeated subculturing the callus tissue gains ability to grow on a std. basal medium which is devoid of growth hormones. This property is called as habituation and callus tissue is known as or habituated callus tissue.
Cells in habituated callus tissue appear to have developed a capacity to synthesize adequate amount of auxins and or cytokinins. These can't be distinguish from normal callus accept in their hormonal requirement.

Chromosomal Variation in Callus Tissues

1. Genetic basis of variation in callus tissue
Endoreduplication is of frequent occurrence in differentiated tissue of
higher plants and such cells remain in mitotic state. Therefore callus tissue may get such genomic heterogeneity possibly due to non selective induce of asynchronous division of both diploid and endoreduplicated cells. Variation of chromosomes no ranges from aneuploidy to different level of polyploidy.

2. Epigenetic basis
Highly meristematic cells are expected to be diploid but callus derived from meristem also shows variation in chromosome no. it is also found that prolong sub culture may read to establishment of one karyotype and other are gradually eliminated. Sometimes structure changes of chromosome like deletion, translocation etc. may occur in culture. Ideal callus culture is characterized by the passion of numerical or structural stability in long term culture. But it is very rare that cells of callus tissue may be haploid if it is derived from microspore culture.

Significance of Callus

1. Whole plant can be regenerate in large number from callus tissue which manipulation of the nutrient and hormonal consequence in culture medium.
This phenomenon is known as plant regeneration, organogenesis or
morphogenesis.

2. Callus tissue is good source of genetic or karyotyping variability, so regenerate the plant from genetically variable cells of callus tissue

3. Cell suspension culture is moving liquid medium and can be initiated from callus culture.
We use only tissue culture technique and it is part of the clonal propagation and in clonal we use conventional and tissue culture also.

Clonal propagation through tissue culture popularly known as micropropagation and can be achieved in a short time and space. Thus, it is possible to produce plants in large number starting from a single individual – use of tissue culture for micropropagation was inflated by G. Morel (1960). Products of this rapid vegetative propagation can be regarded as done only when it is established that the cell, they comprise are genetically identical.


Cellular Differentiation and Totipotency

Cellular Differentiation and Totipotency
Totipotency is the basis of plant cell and tissue culture techniques.
Term was coined by Morgan in the year 1901.
Definition
" Potential of a cell to grow and develop a multi-cellular or multi-organed higher organism is termed as totipotency."
Cellular Totipotency
 Plant body and cellularity is maintained by the zygote and this zygote contains all
the information referred the plant.
This information remains localized in the DNA, due to the mitosis
 zygote divide in to the cells are formed which carry genetic information.
 Many of the genes that remain inactive in differentiated tissues or organs are able to express undergo adequate culture conditions.
To express totipotency differentiated cell first undergoes de-differentiated then redifferentiation.
 S.C. Steward exemplified totipotency by using in a model system.

*In tissue culture, cells obtained from stem, root or other plant part and are allowed to grow in cultural medium containing mineral nutrients, vitamins, hormones etc.
*To encourage cell division and growth. As a result, the cells in culture will produce an
unorganized mass of proliferative cells of a Callus Tissue.
* The cells that comprise the callus are totipotent thus a callus tissue may be in a broader sense totipotent.
 Theoretically, totipotency of all the cells are expressed at a time, it is expected that
equal number of shoots or embryoid will be represented from such cells
 but in experiment such results are not obtained.
Various reasons behind the limited expression of totipotency may be:
1. Variation in chromosome number of cells of callus tissue.
2. An association of cells may be sometime necessary to provide the appropriate
environment for certain individuals to express their totipotency.
3. The endogenous hormone level of a cell and exogenously supplied hormone
make a threshold level which actually induces the totipotent cell to expre
culture but the cells that comprise callus tissue absorb hormones and nutrients a
gradient, availability of hormones is not equal to all cells and thus all the cells
do not express totipotency.
Importance of Totipotency in Plants
1. Vegetative propagation can be done to produce plants of economic, medicinal
and agricultural importance.
2. Genetic modification of plants.
3. Production of homozygous diploid plants.
4. Desired characters can be obtained in the plants by plant breeders and  commercial plant growers.
5. Germplasm conservation.
Ways of Totipotency expression
1. Axillary bud proliferation.
2. Direct somatic embryogenesis.
3. Adventitious shoot bud formation.
4. Organogenesis in callus and suspension cultures.
5. Embryogenesis in callus and suspension cultures.
6. By androgenesis, gynogenesis.
7. Apical bud formation.

डिजाइनर बच्चे की तरफ अमेरिका का पहला कदम

अमेरिका में पहली बार जेनेटिकली मॉडिफाइड इंसानी भ्रूण विकसित किए गए हैं। डिजाइनर बेबी पैदा करने की दिशा में बेशक ये कोई क्रांति नहीं है, लेकिन इस ओर पहला कदम बढ़ाया गया है।

बीते साल चीन ने भी ये कोशिश की थी। वैज्ञानिकों ने मानव भ्रूण को बदलने के लिए CRISPR नाम की एक नई तकनीक का इस्तेमाल किया जो जींस में काट-छांट कर सकती है। इस मामले में इसने दिल का दौरा पड़ने वाले जींस हटा दिए, हालांकि इससे फिर से नैतिकता से जुड़े सवाल उठ खड़े हुए हैं, लेकिन अब तक इंसानी भ्रूण को इंसान के भीतर रोपा नहीं गया है।

ये आम कोशिकाएं नहीं हैं, बल्कि पहली बार जेनिटिकली विकसित किए गए इंसानी भ्रूण हैं, जो अमेरिका में तैयार किए गए हैं। चीन, दक्षिण कोरिया और अमेरिका के वैज्ञानिकों की एक टीम ने इस बात की पहचान की है कि कैसे वह जीन को हटा सकते हैं, जिसकी वजह से बाद के जीवन में दिल की परत मोटी हो जाती है और दिल के दौरे का ख़तरा बढ़ जाता है।

कश्मीर में जन्मे और दिल्ली में पढ़े डॉ संजीव कौल भी इस टीम के एक सदस्य हैं, जो बाद में अमेरिका चले गए। मौजूदा नैतिक गाइडलाइंस ने यह इजाज़त नहीं दी कि इन जींस को किसी कोख में डाला जाए, लेकिन इससे कई संभावनाएं पैदा हो गई हैं।

शनि ग्रह से टकराकर नष्ट होगा नासा का अंतरिक्षयान

लगातार 13 साल तक शनि ग्रह के अपने मिशन का सफलतापूर्वक संचालन करने के बाद इस ग्रह तक पहुंचा पहला मानव निर्मित अंतरिक्षयान 'कैसिनी' अपना आखिरी और आत्मविध्वंसक उड़ान भरने को तैयार है। शुक्रवार 15 सितंबर को 3.26 डॉलर लागत वाले इस शनि मिशन का अंत करते हुए कैसिनी सौर्यमंडल के विशालकाय ग्रह शनि से टकराकर हमेशा के लिए समाप्त हो जाएगा।  कैसिनी मिशन टीम ने इस अंतरिक्ष यान को समाप्त करने का निर्णय शनि ग्रह के वृहद पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र की रक्षा के लिए लिया है। इस ग्रह के अपने ढ़ेरों चंद्रमा हैं। इनमे से कम से कम दो चंद्रमा ऐसे हैं जिनपर जीवन पनपने की अनुकूल परिस्थिति मौजूद है। इनका नाम है एन्सेलाडस और टाइटन। एन्सेलाडस के सतह के नीचे समुद्र मौजूद है वहीं टाइटन पर मीथेन के तालाब हैं।  कैसिनी को नष्ट करके नासा के वैज्ञानिक यह सुनिश्चित करना चाहते हैंकि भविष्य में कभी यह अंतरिक्षयान इन चंद्रमाओं के पास पहुंचकर पृथ्वी से लाए गए किसी संभावित सूक्ष्म जीवाणु से इन्हें दुषित न कर दे। इस यान का ईधन अब कम हो चुका है। वैज्ञानिकों ने इससे संपर्क टूटने से पहले इसे समाप्त करने का निर्णय लिया है।  कैसिनी का प्रक्षेपण सन 1997 में हुआ था और वह सन 2004 में शनि ग्रह की कक्षा में पहुंचा था। पिछले 13 सालों से वह शनि और इसके 62 ज्ञात चंद्रमाओं के इर्द-गिर्द चक्कर काट रहा था और इनकी तस्वीरें और अन्य डाटा भेज रहा था। इस मिशन से प्राप्त डाटा के आधार पर कम से कम 4000 वैज्ञानिक पेपर प्रकाशित हुए हैं।  अपने जीवन के अंतिम दिन यानी 15 सितंबर को यह मानव निर्मित अंतरिक्षयान इस ग्रह के छल्लों और इसके सतह के बीच कुल 22 गोते लगाएगा और अपने अंतिम गोते में यह शनि के वातावरण में प्रवेश कर हमेशा के लिए नष्ट हो जाएगा। अपने अंत समय तक कैसिनी पृथ्वी पर शनि से जुड़े महत्वपूर्ण डाटा भेजता रहेगा।

सीडब्ल्यूएसएन स्कीम दिव्यांगों को सामान्य बच्चों कि तरह देता है अधिकार

अच्छी शिक्षा और मेयारी तालीम हर भारतिय बच्चे का हक़ है।सरकार ने दिव्यांग बच्चों के विकास और उत्थान के लिए कई योजनाएं शुरू की हैं।सर्व शिक्षा अभियान (एसएसए) के तहत बच्चों की विशेष आवश्यकताओं के साथ साथ अच्छी तालिम का इंतज़ाम किया जाता है और (सीडब्ल्यूएसएन) के द्वारा विशेष रूप से दूर-दराज के क्षेत्रों में रहने वाले बच्चों को गुणवत्तापूर्ण शिक्षा देने का प्रयास किया जाता है। 

शिक्षा विभाग ने एसएसए के आईईडी घटक के तहत सीडब्ल्यूएसएन के लिए मुख्य शिक्षा कार्यालय परिसर उधमपुर में एक संसाधन कक्ष की स्थापना की। सीडब्ल्यूएसएन स्कीम का मकसद दिव्यांग और स्पेशल बच्चों को सामान्य बच्चों के तरह ही शिक्षा दी जाए जो कि उनका अधिकार है।

स्पेशल बच्चों के लिए सीडब्ल्यूएसएन के अध्यापकों को नियुक्त किया गया है। बच्चों के लिए रिसोर्स रूम भी बनाया गया है जहां इनकी ज़रुरत का हर सामन होता है।दिव्यांग बच्चे और उनके माता-पिता बहुत खुश हैं कि उनके बच्चे अब आम बच्चों की ही तरह स्कूल जाते हैं। इस योजना के माध्यम से 50 छात्रों ने, 20 से अधिक विद्यालयों और अलग-अलग स्कूलों में दाखिल किया गया है।

20 छात्र विभिन्न स्कूलों में शिक्षा प्राप्त कर रहे हैं, और 16 छात्र स्कूल में दाखिले के लिए तैयार हैं। (सीडब्ल्यूएसएन) बच्चों में सामान्य बच्चों से अधिक प्रतिभा होती है। आवश्यकता है उस प्रतिभा को उचित मंच प्रदान करने और ऐसे बच्चों के आत्मविश्वास को बढ़ाने की।

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